Headnote
The following poems by Robert Herrick take the form of ceremonial entry literature – a genre which represented the event of a king or governor entering a city (Allsopp 5). While this tradition typically “stressed the populace’s love for its new governor and protector” and the “celebration of royal majesty” in the case of an entering monarch (Breen 341), scholarship is beginning to investigate how entry literature explored tensions in the relationship between a local populace and entering authority. As R.L.M. Morris notes, “alongside the pure magnificence of the associated spectacle” of ceremonial entry, the fact that nobility was made visible to local citizens “provided a framework for the articulation and contestation of identities” (231). Thus, poets turned to print to assert “representational authority” over the entering figure (D.J. Hopkins 480).
The first poem celebrates the newly appointed Governor of Exeter Sir John Berkeley (bap. 1607, d. 1678). Berkeley was a royalist officer commissioned to command the king’s forces in the West (Hayton, ODNB), and in 1643 was appointed by Prince Maurice to be Exeter’s governor (Stoyle 91). Since Herrick has long been recognised as a “royalist die-hard” (Corns 95), it would be easy to overlook tensions that arise within a poem that welcomes a fellow monarchist into the position of governor. In 1629, Herrick became a vicar at a church in Devon (Cain), however he “was ejected from his church living in Dean Prior in the early months of 1646” after Parliament’s “New Model Army had taken most of Devon” (McDowell 107). Although ‘To Sir John’ was likely written before this event, the publication of Hesperides in 1648 means that Herrick may have turned back to this poem to foreshadow the royalist regime’s lack of military success in Devon.
Berkeley was initially received well by Exeter as the Exeter Chamber Act Book describes him as having “expressed a greate care and respecte to the welfare of this cittie and cittizens” (qtd. in Stoyle, ch. 5). Herrick’s poem follows this sentiment as he deploys the conventional flattery of entry literature by associating Berkeley with the heroic bravery of Hector and depicting him as a husband saving Exeter from the plight of widowhood. After condemning those who have turned against the king, Herrick then praises the royalist stronghold in Exeter which has not only been strengthened by the reparation of the city wall, but also by the appointment of the new governor who Herrick believed would prevent the city from suffering the same fate of Troy or classical Rome. Yet time would show that Berkeley’s fraught relationship Lord Goring, the commander of the main royalist army in the West (Stoyle 104), and the issues Berkeley faced with scarce war provisions ultimately contributed to the weakening of Exeter’s royalist force until their defeat in 1646. Thus, the poem’s undertone of uncertainty should be noted as like the siege of Troy or the fall of the Roman empire, Exeter’s royalist stronghold ultimately collapses.
‘To the King, Upon his Comming with his Army into the West’ commemorates the entry of King Charles I and his army into Exeter in 1644 as the king briefly stopped in the city before continuing his route to pursue the Earl of Essex in Cornwall (Allsopp 9). Berkeley and other high-ranking royalists met the king outside of Exeter before riding into the city to be greeted by the mayor, the citizens and the celebratory ringing of church bells (Stoyle 98). Since royal entries strengthened the bond between a king and his subjects (Keenan 2), Herrick’s poem creates a strong sense of royalist communal identity by framing the relationship between Charles and Exeter as a marriage. Yet the carpe diem imagery surrounding the personification of Exeter as a woman on the brink of sexual decline imbues Herrick’s marital metaphor with a sense of urgency. It seems that the city was in dire need of the monarch as the poem is persistent in its exploitation of entry convention to uplift royalist morale. The poem praises Charles by comparing him to the biblical horseman Conquest who cannot be defeated in battle whilst also surrounding his entry with ideas of regeneration to create a sense of hope.
Unfortunately, by 1645 the Parliamentarians had taken control of the Midlands and news arrived that Sir Thomas Fairfax’s New Model Army would soon take the South West. The arrival of Goring’s troops in Exeter meant that supplies were taken up, and officers then “sent an urgent appeal to the Prince of Wales… requesting him to intervene” (Stoyle 104). In ‘To Prince Charles Upon his Coming to Exeter’, this intervention is depicted as being empowered by divine will as Herrick draws on classical notions of destiny and fate to mark the prince’s arrival as a turning point for the royalist cause. The prince is compared to the unconquerable Sulla as Herrick’s allusion to classical Rome paints a picture of militaristic success. The poem is Herrickan in its depiction of maids scattering flowers and the crowning of the prince with a diadem as Herrick garners a sense of merriment and festivity to oppose the immense pressure placed upon the city in the lead up to its eventual downfall.
For more on Robert Herrick’s life in Devon, see ReConEx Podcast 8: Ruth Connolly on Robert Herrick in Devon (here).
To Sir John Berkley Governor of Exeter.
Stand forth[1] brave man, since Fate has made thee here
The Hector[2] over Aged Exeter;
Who for a long sad time has weeping stood[3],
Like a poore Lady lost in Widdowhood[4]:
But feares not now to see her safety sold
(As other Townes and Cities were) for gold,
By those ignoble Births[5], which shame the stem
That gave Progermination[6] unto them:
Whose restlesse Ghosts shall heare their children sing,
Our Sires betraid their Countrey and their King.
True, if this Citie seven times rounded was
With rock[7], and seven times circumflankt[8] with brasse[9],
Yet if thou wert not, Berkley, loyall proofe,
The Senators[10] down tumbling with the Roofe,
Would into prais’d (but pitied) ruines fall,
Leaving no shew, where stood the Capitoll[11].
But thou art just and itchlesse[12], and dost please
Thy Genius with two strength’ning Buttresses,
Faith, and Affection: which will never slip
To weaken this thy great Dictator-ship[13].
To the King, Upon his Comming with his Army into the West.
Welcome, most welcome to our Vowes[14] and us,
Most great, and universall Genius[15]!
The Drooping West[16], which hitherto has stood
As one, in long-lamented-widow-hood;
Looks like a Bride[17] now, or a bed of flowers,
Newly refresh’t[18], both by the Sun, and showers.
War, which before was horrid, now appears
Lovely in you, brave Prince of Cavaliers!
A deale of courage in each bosome springs[19]
By your accesse; (O you the best of Kings![20])
Ride on with all white Omens[21]; so, that where
Your Standard’s up, we fix a Conquest there.
To Prince Charles Upon his Coming to Exeter.
What Fate[22] decreed, Time now ha’s made us see
A Renovation of the West by Thee.
That Preternaturall[23] Fever, which did threat
Death to our Countrey, now hath lost his heat:
And calmes succeeding, we perceive no more
Th’unequall Pulse to beat, as heretofore.
Something there yet remaines for Thee to do;
Then reach those ends that thou wast destin’d to.
Go on with Sylla’s Fortune[24]; let thy Fate
Make Thee like Him, this, that way fortunate,
Apollos[25] Image side with Thee to blesse
Thy Warre (discreetly made) with white[26] successe.
Meane time thy Prophets Watch by Watch shall pray;
While young Charles fights, and fighting wins the day.
That done, our smooth-pac’t Poems all shall be
Sung in the high Doxologie[27] of Thee.
Then maids[28] shall strew[29] Thee, and thy Curles from them
Receive (with Songs) a flowrie Diadem[30].
Endnotes
[1] When commenting on King James I’s royal entry into London in 1604, D.J. Hopkins has noted the “theatricality of public display” as the entering person is situated as the object of the public’s gaze (478). Herrick’s command for Berkeley to “stand forth” follows this convention whilst also associating him with the heroic quality of bravery.
[2] Here, Herrick extends the heroic imagery surrounding Berkeley by inserting a mythological allusion to the legendary Trojan warrior Hector who was known for his bravery in the Battle of Troy. Hector was also a Trojan prince and led the army in defending Troy from its siege by Greek warriors. Although this allusion paints “a valiant and defiant image”, it is also “one in which the certainty of defeat is always already inscribed” as Hector is ultimately killed by Achilles in Homer’s The Iliad (L. Hopkins 115). While it is unlikely that the poem is criticising the governor due to Herrick’s royalist political identity, this allusion suggests an undertone of apprehension due to concern over whether the newly appointed governor will successfully defend Exeter during a time of social and political uncertainty.
[3] Herrick refers to Exeter and wider Devon as a dreary place throughout Hesperides to suggest his discontent towards his temporary dwelling in the South West. For example, in his poem ‘Discontents in Devon’ he famously referred to Devon as “dull Devon-shire” possibly due the weather or perhaps because he looks back at his time in Devon with dissatisfaction due to his later ejection in 1646 (Cain and Connolly 4). This view is strengthened by Syrithe Pugh who draws on the description of “the drooping West” in Herrick’s ‘His returne to London’ to argue that Herrick imitates his exilic grief from Ovid to reflect on his “own expulsion from Devonshire living” and to express discontent towards “the displacement of the King and of monarchical authority from the seat of government” after the royalist defeat (66).
[4] When discussing ceremonial entries during the Italian Wars (1494–1559), Elizabeth Reid has identified how entry iconography and practice reinforced the masculinity of the entering patriarch by figuring “fortified cities as women” as this “derived from a broader allegorical tradition, notably utilized by Dante and Machiavelli to personify the disunified and war-ravaged Italian peninsula as a battered woman in need of a male saviour and master” (81). Herrick may have been inspired by the international iconography surrounding ceremonial entry to depict Exeter as a widow who has been placed in the safety of her new husband, the royalist governor.
[5] Herrick is referring to those who have betrayed their country by going against the king in the English Civil War. Syrithe Pugh notes how “at the beginning of hostilities support for Charles was strongest in the north, but as the war continued and Parliament gained control of the north, the south-west became an increasingly important royalist stronghold” (65).
[6] Progermination = “Creation, propagation, birth.” (OED N. 1).
[7] Exeter’s city wall. As a result of the siege of Exeter and the appointment of royalists into high-ranking positions in the city, in 1644 plans started to emerge concerning the reparation of the city wall to strengthen Exeter’s defence (Stoyle 92).
[8] A Latin compound that is of Herrick’s own coinage. Flank = “To guard, protect, strengthen, or defend on the flank” (OED V. 2), and “Circum” in Latin means “around”.
[9] Tom Cain and Ruth Connolly link this line to Horace’s Ode 3 which states that if Troy’s “bronze wall should rise three times with the aid of Phoebus, three times my Argives will destroy it” (3.3.65-8). Perhaps this reference is foreshadowing how the reparation of the city’s wall was not enough to protect the city from the parliamentarians.
[10] Herrick is referring to the aldermen or high-ranking members of Exeter’s city council who are now in the safety of Sir John Berkeley. The image of the “senators tumbling” may be a reference to The Fall of the Roman Senate as writers often paralleled the decline of the Roman empire to the events of the English Civil War. For example, Thomas Hobbes believed that “the idea of mixed sovereignty, derived from the tense relationship between the Roman senate and people” may have “fed parliamentary ambitions to wrest sovereignty from the crown” (Andrew 29). Since Herrick’s reference to Rome is placed after his condemnation of parliamentarian traitors, he fuels the royalist cause by asserting that the “Capitoll” would fall if it were not for the appointment of representatives of the crown such as Sir John Berkeley to act as governor over the city’s own council. Ironically, however, the royalist stronghold in Exeter will eventually suffer a similar fate to that of Rome as the monarchists are soon defeated and driven out of the city.
[11] Referring to Exeter through an allusion to Rome.
[12] Itchless = “incorruptible.” (OED Adj. 1).
[13] While this term may be surrounded with negative notions of tyranny for a modern readership, here Herrick is drawing on “the ‘classical’ or original Roman dictatorship” where under critical and exceptional circumstances resolute power may be conferred on to an individual, government or assembly “in order to confront an external or internal state of emergency in the name of the common good” (Nicolet 263). Thus, Herrick legitimises the power given to the new governor during wartime chaos.
[14] Marjorie Swann observes how in Hesperides, Herrick “often assumes the role of a Laudian priest who orchestrates the observance of rituals designed to assert communal identity and social hierarchy”. We see this in ‘Corinna’s going a Maying’ where Herrick urges Corinna to participate in May-day festivities. Similarly, ‘To the King’ grants visibility to Herrick’s various religious and political identities as he not only participates in the celebrations surrounding Charles’ entry by taking the position of a citizen welcoming the monarch into the city, but also acts as a Stuart poet displaying his royalist loyalty by praising the king. Additionally, the poem’s first line which frames Charles’ entry into Exeter as the fulfilment of marital vows between a husband and wife suggests that Herrick may be alluding to his position as vicar of Dean Prior by taking the role of a priest orchestrating a metaphorical marriage between the king and this city. For more on the significance of marital imagery in royal entry iconography see annotation 4.
[15] The flattery of the monarch was a conventional feature of ceremonial entry literature (Keenan 2).
[16] Throughout Hesperides, Herrick often describes the South West in dismal terms. See annotation for Herrick’s description of “weeping” Exeter in ‘To Sir John Berkley Governor of Exeter’ (3). Also see ‘Discontents in Devon’ which refers to Devon as “dull Devon-shire” (Cain and Connolly 4), and “the drooping West” in ‘His Returne to London’ (Cain and Connolly 1).
[17] Like ‘To Sir John Berkley Governor of Exeter’, Herrick frames the entry of the patriarch as a husband saving a woman from widowhood, however this trope takes on new meaning when it is used for the king. Since Stuart poets typically envisioned marriage as a “source and a symbol of an orderly and harmonious society” (Dubrow 49), it is significant that Herrick alludes to the institution of marriage to restore a sense order during a time of social and political disorder. This is not the first instance during Charles I’s reign where domestic imagery has been used by his supporters as a “political tool” (Knoppers 4). When discussing Stuart culture Laura Knoppers has observed how the “image of virtue, harmony, and majesty” projected through Charles’ marriage to Henrietta Maria “helped to legitimate Stuart rule” (17). Thus, by framing the arrival of the country’s ruler into Exeter as a fulfilment of marital vows, Herrick uplifts royalist morale by surrounding the king’s entry with ideas of stability, order and protection that are also granted to a wife by her husband.
[18] The comparison between a “Bride” and a “Newlr refresh’t” bed of flowers invokes the carpe diem tradition which is most thoroughly explored in Herrick’s ‘To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time’ and ‘Corinna’s going a Maying’. Carpe diem derives from Latin and can be translated as “seize the day”. Herrick often draws on this idea to reflect on the transient nature of female sexual maturity by comparing women to plants which must be sexually deflowered before their bodies decay. Since Herrick invokes the carpe diem notion of “spinstery aging” when portraying Exeter as a woman being saved from widowhood (Wise 974), one may observe that he was under the impression that Exeter was in dire need of the king’s protection before the city’s inevitable decline as this metaphor surrounds Charles’ entrance with an underlying tone of urgency.
[19] The imagery of spring, rebirth and new beginnings surrounds the king’s entry with a sense of hope to uplift royalist morale.
[20] The deployment of monarchical flattery through parenthesis suggests that Herrick is intentionally drawing the reader’s attention to how his political identity as a Stuart poet is framing his representation of monarchical authority. Thus, Herrick may be implying to his readership that he is bound by his political loyalty and must praise the monarch even when the fate of Exeter is uncertain.
[21] Omen – “An event or phenomenon regarded as a portent of good or evil; a prophetic sign, an augury” (OED N. 1). In the description of Charles and his army riding with “white omens” to fix a “Conquest” Herrick may be alluding to one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse from Revelation. The horsemen are identified as Conquest, Slaughter, Famine and Death, and it is believed that they would bring about the end of the world through mass destruction (Flegg 90). Conquest is described in Revelation as having a crown and riding a white horse: “And I saw, and behold a white horse: and he that sat on him had a bow; and a crown was given unto him: and he went forth conquering, and to conquer” (Rev. 6:2). By associating the king and his army with Conquest, Herrick not only constructs an image of unconquerable military strength for the royalist regime, but also assumes an apocalyptic rhetoric to reflect on the catastrophic change and destruction that could become of wartime events.
[22] Herrick invokes the classical concept of fate to suggest that it is in the will of the divine that Prince Charles visits Exeter to strengthen the royalist forces in the West.
[23] Preternatural = “Outside the ordinary course of nature; differing from or surpassing what is natural” (OED Adj. 1)
[24] This is a reference to Lucius Cornelius Sulla – a Roman general and dictator who is known for never losing a battle. Plutarch’s Life of Sulla discusses the mass bloodshed caused by Sulla as he is described as having “no humanity or moderation” in war (371). After being victorious in the battle against Archelaüs, Sulla is described as having “inscribed upon his trophies the names of Mars, Victory and Venus, in the belief that his success in the war was due no less to good fortune than to military skill and strength” (389).
[25] Apollo is known for assisting mortals in battle. In Book VIII of the Aeneid, Apollo intervenes to assist Augustus in defeating Cleopatra and the forces of the East during the battle of Actium. When discussing this interpretation, Syrithe Pugh comments that Herrick “momentarily aligns his own topographical strategy with that of Virgil” as he draws on the “ideological programme of the Aeneid” which depicted “the binary opposition of triumphant imperial West and threatening but defeated East” (66). If one continues the comparison between Prince Charles and Sulla in line 9, in Plutarch’s Life of Sulla it is said that “Sulla had a little golden image of Apollo from Delphi which he always carried in his bosom when he was in battle” (421), also mentioned in Cain and Connolly.
[26] Compare this to “white omens” in ‘To the King, Upon his Comming with his Army into the West’. If we accept the interpretation that the image of Charles and his army riding with “white omens” in ‘To the King’ is a reference to the apocalyptic horseman Conquest and his white horse, it could be suggested that the “white success” in this poem is a reference to Sulla’s white horse whose swiftness enables him to outrun the blow of a spearhead. Preceding the story about Sulla carrying Apollo’s image, Plutarch’s Life of Sulla describes a confrontation with the Samnites and Lucanians where Sulla “mounted on a white horse that was mettlesome and very swift. By this horse two of the enemy recognised him, and poised their spears for the cast. Sulla himself, now, did not notice this, but his groom did, and with a cut of the lash succeeded in sending Sulla’s horse along so that the spear-heads just grazed its tail and fixed themselves in the ground” (421).
[27] Doxology = “A short formula of praise to God, esp. one in liturgical use” (OED N. 1.b). This may relate to Herrick’s role as a church vicar as he would have often led church services where doxologies were sung.
[28] When discussing the personification of fortified cities as women in the gendered iconography of ceremonial entry, Elizabeth Reid observes how “some cities utilized the place-as-woman trope by employing a local maiden to perform the role of the city in the guise of a bride greeting and consenting to union with her groom” (81). It seems that Herrick is combining this tradition of ceremonial entry with his own poetic aesthetic of festivity by creating an image of maidens scattering flower petals over the prince as he enters Exeter. The association of maidens with nature during a communal celebration is also explored in Herrick’s ‘Corinna’s Going a Maying’: “When as a thousand Virgins on this day,/ Spring, sooner then the Lark, to fetch in May” (Cain and Connolly 13-14). The speaker then urges Corinna to join them: “Rise; and put on your Foliage, and be seene/ To come forth, like the/ Spring-time, fresh and greene” (Cain and Connolly 15-16). Thus, the depiction of maidens scattering flowers in ‘To Prince Charles’ generates ideas of female fertility, Spring and regeneration to suggest that the prince’s entrance will renew the military strength of the city’s royalist force.
[29] Strew = “To scatter, spread loosely; to scatter (rushes, straw, flowers, etc.) on the ground or floor, or over the surface of something” (OED V. 1.a).
[30] Diadem = “A wreath of leaves or flowers worn round the head” (OED N. 1.c). The image of the prince wearing a flower crown echoes the rural festivities mentioned elsewhere in Hesperides. For example, in ‘The May-pole’, the speaker states that he will drink to “the Garlands a-round [the May-pole]” and to “those/ Whose hands did compose/ The glory of flowers that crown’d it” (Cain and Connolly 3-6). This sense of communal festivity is garnered from the image of Prince Charles being crowned with flowers by the citizens of Exeter. It is also significant to note that in Ancient Rome, wreaths functioned as rewards for military success as Herrick may be praising the prince whose “fighting wins the day” (14).
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